A freak show was a type of exhibition popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries that presented individuals with unusual physical characteristics or rare medical conditions. During that era, participants were often referred to as “freaks of nature,” a term commonly used at the time but now widely considered outdated and offensive.
Typical attractions included people who were unusually tall or short, individuals with intersex traits (historically described as having both male and female secondary sexual characteristics), and those with rare medical conditions. In addition to physical differences, some exhibitions featured heavily tattooed or pierced performers, as well as entertainers known for attention-grabbing acts such as fire-eating and sword-swallowing. These shows were often promoted as sensational spectacles intended to astonish audiences.
With the introduction of the carte de visite photographic format in the 1850s—made possible by improvements in photographic reproduction techniques such as the wet-plate collodion process—performers could distribute multiple prints from a single exposure. According to historians of photography, including research from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the International Center of Photography, cartes de visite became highly collectible in the United States and Europe.
Individuals exhibited in sideshows often posed formally for these photographs and sometimes ordered large quantities for sale. It was not uncommon for performers to include brief autobiographical notes on the back of the card, highlighting their physical traits, stage personas, or talents. These photographic cards circulated widely and became both popular souvenirs and a significant source of income for performers and show proprietors.
Historical References Supporting This Definition
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Smithsonian Institution – Research on American sideshows and exhibition culture
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Metropolitan Museum of Art – Documentation on carte de visite photography
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Freak Show by Nadja Durbach – Scholarly study on Victorian sideshows
Performers exhibited in 19th-century sideshows were often portrayed by the public as timid, passive, or unhappy with their circumstances. However, historical research suggests that this stereotype does not reflect the full reality. In many cases, individuals actively negotiated their contracts, advocated for better pay, and exercised agency within the entertainment industry of the time.
By the early 1850s, it had become common practice in both England and the United States to sell collectible photographic cards featuring well-known sideshow performers. These were typically produced in the popular carte de visite format. According to studies of Victorian exhibition culture, including research cited by the Smithsonian Institution and historian Nadja Durbach in her book Freak Show, performers often received a share of the profits from these sales, rather than the proceeds going exclusively to show proprietors. In some instances, the sale of these images became an important source of personal income.
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One notable example was Isaac W. Sprague, known professionally as the “American Human Skeleton.” Sprague, who stood approximately 5 feet 6 inches tall and reportedly weighed around 43 pounds due to a severe muscular condition, toured during the 1860s, including appearances associated with P. T. Barnum. His photographic cards were widely distributed, and historical accounts indicate that he earned a meaningful income from their sale.
Some performers, including Sprague, also authored or contributed to short autobiographical pamphlets sold at exhibitions. These publications allowed individuals to shape their own public narratives, presenting themselves not merely as curiosities, but as professional entertainers participating in a popular form of Victorian-era spectacle.
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